Regulating act of 1773 was of great constitutional importance as

• It was the first step taken by the British Government to control and regulate the affairs of the East India Company in India;
• It recognized, for the first time, the political and administrative functions of the Company; and
• It laid the foundations of central administration in India.

Source: Laxmikanth.

In a bid to rectify the defects of the Regulating Act of 1773, the British Parliament passed the Amending Act of 1781, also known as the Act of Settlement.

The features of this Act were as follows:

• It exempted the Governor-General and the Council from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court for the acts done by them in their official capacity.
• Similarly, it also exempted the servants of the company from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court for their official actions.
• It excluded the revenue matters and the matters arising in the collection of revenue from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

• It provided that the Supreme Court was to have jurisdiction over all the inhabitants of Calcutta.
• It also required the court to administer the personal law of the defendants i.e., Hindus were to be tried according to the Hindu law and Muslims were to be tried according to the Mohammedan law.
• It laid down that the appeals from the Provincial Courts could be taken to the Governor-General-in-Council and not to the Supreme Court.
• It empowered the Governor-General- in – Council to frame regulations for the Provincial Courts and Councils.

Source: Laxmikanth.

Pitts India Act, 1784 distinguished between the commercial and political functions of the Company.

Source: Laxmikanth.

The features of Charter Act of 1813 were as follows:

• It abolished the trade monopoly of the company in India i.e., the Indian trade was thrown open to all British merchants.

• However, it continued the monopoly of the company over trade in tea and trade with China.
• It asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over the Company’s territories in India.
• It allowed the Christian missionaries to come to India for the purpose of enlightening the people.

Source: Laxmikanth.

On December 13, 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru moved the historic ‘Objectives Resolution’ in the Assembly. It laid down the fundamentals and philosophy of the constitutional structure. It read:

• “This Constituent Assembly declares its firm and solemn resolve to proclaim India as an Independent Sovereign Republic and to draw up for her future governance a constitution.
• Wherein the territories that now comprise British India, the territories that now form the Indian States and such other parts of India as are outside India and the States as well as other territories as are willing to be constituted into the independent sovereign India, shall be a Union of them all; and

• wherein the said territories, whether with their present boundaries or with such others as may be determined by the Constituent Assembly and thereafter according to the law of the Constitution, shall possess and retain the status of autonomous units together with residuary powers and exercise all powers and functions of Government and administration save and except such powers and functions as are vested in or assigned to the Union or as are inherent or implied in the Union or resulting there from; and
• where in all power and authority of the sovereign independent India, its constituent parts and organs of Government are derived from the people; and
• Where in shall be guaranteed and secured to all the people of India justice, social, economic and political; equality of status of opportunity, and before the law; freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship, vocation, association and action, subject to law and public morality; and
• Where in adequate safeguards shall be provided for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and depressed and other backward classes; and
• Where by shall be maintained the integrity of the territory of the Republic and its sovereign rights on land, sea and air according to justice and the law of civilized nations; and

• This ancient land attains its rightful and honored place in the world and makes its full and willing contribution to the promotion of world peace and the welfare of mankind.”

This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the Assembly on January 22, 1947. It influenced the eventual shaping of the constitution through all its subsequent stages. Its modified version forms the Preamble of the present Constitution.

Source: Laxmikanth.

Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Sardar Patel.

Source: Laxmikanth.

The structural part of the Constitution is, to a large extent, derived from the Government of India Act of 1935.

Source: Laxmikanth.

Indian Constitution has been variously described as ‘federal in form but, unitary in spirit’, ‘quasi-federal’ by K.C. Wheare, ‘bargaining federalism’ by Morris Jones, ‘co-operative federalism’ by Granville Austin, ‘federation with a centralizing tendency’ by Ivor Jennings and so on.

Source: Laxmikanth.

The parliamentary system is also known as the ‘Westminster’ Model of Government, responsible Government and Cabinet Government. The Constitution establishes the parliamentary system not only at the Centre, but also in the states.

The features of parliamentary government in India are:

• Presence of nominal and real executives;

• Majority party rule,
• Collective responsibility of the executive to the legislature,
• Membership of the ministers in the legislature,
• Leadership of the Prime Minister or the Chief Minister,
• Dissolution of the lower House (Lok Sabha or Assembly).

Source: Laxmikanth.

According to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the Directive Principles of State Policy is a ‘novel feature’ of the Indian Constitution.

• They are enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution.
• They can be classified into three broad categories – socialistic, Gandhian and liberal intellectual.

Source: Laxmikanth.

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:
(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was added in 1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in 1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004.

The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and Minister of the Union take oath subscribing “allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established”. [THIRD SCHEDULE]
The President [Article 60] and Governor of States [Article 159] take oath to “preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law”.

: The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:
(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was added in 1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in 1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004.

Statement 1 is correct.In parliamentary systems, the chief executive’s term of office is directly linked with that of the legislature, while in presidential systems the terms are not linked.
-The executive is selected by the assembly and the executive remains in office subject to legislative confidence.
Statement 2 is incorrect. In a presidential system, the President, who is the chief executive as well as the symbolic head of government, is chosen by a separate election and not from the Legislature.
-Ministers/Secretaries usually are not simultaneously members of the legislature, although their appointment may require the advice and consent of the legislative branch.

Option 1 is correct. The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the state emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26 January 1950, only three lions are visible.
In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).
Option 2 is correct. The National Flag is a horizontal tricolor of India saffron at the top, white in the middle and India green at the bottom in equal proportion.
In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes.
Option 3 is incorrect. The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes. It commenced in 78 AD.

The Criteria adopted by the Government to determine the eligibility of a language for granting classical language status, are as under:
–High antiquity of its early texts/ recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years;
–A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;
–The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
–The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Six languages i.e. Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia have been given status of Classical languages of India.

Chhattisgarh, carved out of Madhya Pradesh came into being on 1 November 2000 as the 26th State of the Union.
In January 1950, the United Province was renamed as Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal remained a part of Uttar Pradesh before it was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9 November 2000. It is incepted as the 27th State of India.
Jharkhand which came into being on 15 November 2000 splitting from Bihar, as the 28th
State of the Union is the homeland of the tribals

Statement 1 is incorrect. Constitution Day also known as ‘Samvidhan Divas’ is celebrated in our country on 26th November every year to commemorate the adoption of the Constitution of India.

On 26th November 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India, which came into effect from 26th January 1950.

Statement 2 is correct. Preamble states that “WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;

and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION”.

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:

(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.

Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was added in 1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in 1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004.

The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and Minister of the Union take oath subscribing “allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established”. [THIRD SCHEDULE]

The President [Article 60] and Governor of States [Article 159] take oath to “preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law”.

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22 languages:

(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit, (15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22) Dogri.

Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was added in 1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in 1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004.

Statement 1 is correct.In parliamentary systems, the chief executive’s term of office is directly linked with that of the legislature, while in presidential systems the terms are not linked.

-The executive is selected by the assembly and the executive remains in office subject to legislative confidence.

Statement 2 is incorrect. In a presidential system, the President, who is the chief executive as well as the symbolic head of government, is chosen by a separate election and not from the Legislature.

-Ministers/Secretaries usually are not simultaneously members of the legislature, although their appointment may require the advice and consent of the legislative branch.

Option 1 is correct. The state emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. In the state emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26 January 1950, only three lions are visible.

In the original, there are four lions, standing back to back, mounted on an abacus with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the Capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra).

Option 2 is correct. The National Flag is a horizontal tricolor of India saffron at the top, white in the middle and India green at the bottom in equal proportion.

In the centre of the white band is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes.

Option 3 is incorrect. The national calendar based on the Saka Era, with Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22 March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar for the following official purposes. It commenced in 78 AD.

The Criteria adopted by the Government to determine the eligibility of a language for granting classical language status, are as under:

–High antiquity of its early texts/ recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years;

–A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;

–The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;

–The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

Six languages i.e. Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia have been given status of Classical languages of India.

Chhattisgarh, carved out of Madhya Pradesh came into being on 1 November 2000 as the 26th State of the Union.

In January 1950, the United Province was renamed as Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal remained a part of Uttar Pradesh before it was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on 9 November 2000. It is incepted as the 27th State of India.

Jharkhand which came into being on 15 November 2000 splitting from Bihar, as the 28th

State of the Union is the homeland of the tribals

Statement 1 is incorrect. Constitution Day also known as ‘Samvidhan Divas’ is celebrated in our country on 26th November every year to commemorate the adoption of the Constitution of India.

On 26th November 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India, which came into effect from 26th January 1950.

Statement 2 is correct. Preamble states that “WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;

and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION”.

Regulating Act, 1833 was the final step towards centralization in British India.

The features of this Act were as follows:

• It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor – General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Thus, the act created, for the first time, Government of India having authority over the entire territorial area possessed by the British in India. Lord William Bentick was the first Governor-General of India.
• It deprived the Governor of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers. The Governor-General of India was given exclusive legislative powers for the entire British India. The laws made under the previous acts were called as Regulations, while laws made under this act were called as Acts.
• It ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial body, which became a purely administrative body. It provided that the Company’s territories in India were held by it ‘in trust for His Majesty, His heirs and successors’.

Source: Laxmikanth

Statement 1 is incorrect. Article 239AA provides for special provisions with respect to Delhi which mentions that from the date of commencement of the Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991, the Union territory of Delhi is called the National Capital Territory of Delhi (further referred to as the National Capital Territory).

Statement 2 is incorrect. First Schedule of the Constitution provides: Names of the States and their territorial jurisdiction as well as names of the Union Territories and their extent.

It does not mention capital cities of the states.

The economic, political, and social frameworks that each society has, its laws, institutions, policies, etc., result in different distributions of benefits and burdens across members of the society.

The structure of these frameworks is important because the distributions of benefits and burdens resulting from them fundamentally affect people’s lives. Principles of distributive justice are therefore best thought of as providing moral guidance for the political processes and structures that affect the distribution of benefits and burdens in societies.

Distributive principles vary in numerous dimensions. They vary in what is considered relevant to distributive justice (income, wealth, opportunities, jobs, welfare, utility, etc.); in the nature of the recipients of the distribution (individual persons, groups of persons, reference classes, etc.); and on what basis the distribution should be made (equality, maximization, according to individual characteristics, according to free transactions, etc.).

In 1951 the University of Madras invited Jennings to deliver a series of lectures on the just born Indian Constitution.

 Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, one of the chief architects of the Constitution, attended them and stayed through all his lectures which Jennings delivered in parts on three successive days.

 Jennings began his address by summing up India’s Constitution in one cynical sentence: “Too long, too rigid, too prolix.” Over the course of three lectures, Jennings elaborated on his views

• He focused on some primary aspects: The Constitution’s rigidity and its superfluous provisions; fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy; and, finally, key aspects of India’s federalism.

 Jennings finally handed down a largely unfavourable verdict. India’s Constitution, he declared, was “far too large and therefore far too rigid”, too caged by its history, and too unwieldy to be moulded into something useful through judicious interpretations.

The Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution contains a list of 22 scheduled languages viz. Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Sindhi (added by 21st Amendment Act, 1967) Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali (added by 71st Amendment Act, 1992), Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santal (added by 92nd Amendment 2003). The list had originally 14 languages only but subsequently through amendments 8 new languages were added.

Article 244 in Part X of the Constitution envisages a special system of administration for certain areas designated as ‘scheduled areas’ and ‘tribal areas’.

 The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the administration and control of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes in any state except the four states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

 The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, on the other hand, deals with the administration of the tribal areas in the four northeastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

The National Register of Citizens (NRC) is a register containing names of all genuine Indian citizens. At present, only Assam has such a register.

 The exercise may be extended to other states as well

• Nagaland is already creating a similar database known as the Register of Indigenous Inhabitants.

 The Centre is planning to create a National Population Register (NPR), which will contain demographic and biometric details of citizens.

 The NRC will be updated as per the provisions of The Citizenship Act, 1955 and The Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003.

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

Some of the key features of federalism:

 There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.

 Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own JURISDICTION in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.

 The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed.

 The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.

 Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers.

 Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.

 The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while at the same time accommodate regional diversity

Features of the Act:

 It made the Governor-General of Bengal as the Governor-General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers.

 Thus, the act created, for the first time, a Government of India having authority over the entire territorial area possessed by the British in India.

 Lord William Bentick was the first governor-general of India.

 It deprived the governor of Bombay and Madras of their legislative powers. The Governor-General of India was given exclusive legislative powers for the entire British India.

 The laws made under the previous acts were called as Regulations while laws made under this act were called as Acts.

 It ended the activities of the East India Company as a commercial body, which became a purely administrative body.

 It provided that the company’s territories in India were held by it ‘in trust for His Majesty, His heirs and successors’.

 The Charter Act of 1833 attempted to introduce a system of open competition for selection of civil servants, and stated that the Indians should not be debarred from holding any place, office and employment under the Company.

 However, this provision was negated after opposition from the Court of Directors.

The parliamentary system is also known as the ‘Westminster’ model of government, responsible government and cabinet government.
The Constitution establishes the parliamentary system not only at the Centre but also in the states.
The features of parliamentary government in India are:
• Presence of nominal and real executives
• Majority party rule
• Collective responsibility of the executive to the legislature
• Membership of the ministers in the legislature
• Leadership of the prime minister or the chief minister,
• Dissolution of the lower House (Lok Sabha or Assembly).

The Constitution of India stands for a secular state. Hence, it does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of the Indian State. The following provisions of the Constitution reveal the secular character of the Indian State:
• The term ‘secular’ was added to the Preamble of the Indian Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976.
• The Preamble secures to all citizens of India liberty of belief, faith and worship.
• The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or equal protection of the laws (Article 14).
• The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on the ground of religion (Article 15).
• Equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters of public employment (Article 16).
• All persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practice and propagate any religion (Article 25).
• Every religious denomination or any of its section shall have the right to manage its religious affairs (Article 26).
• No person shall be compelled to pay any taxes for the promotion of a particular religion (Article 27).

The Constitution does not contain any specific procedure for the selection and appointment of the Chief Minister.
• Article 164 only says that the Chief Minister shall be appointed by the governor.
• However, this does not imply that the governor is free to appoint any one as the Chief Minister.
• In accordance with the convections of the parliamentary system of government, the governor has to appoint the leader of the majority party in the state legislative assembly as the Chief Minister.

On May 17, 2019 in a very short hearing, a three-judge Bench of the Supreme Court (the Chief Justie of India Ranjan Gogoi and Justices Deepak Gupta and Sanjiv Khanna) decided a batch of 15 petitions under the title Abdul Kuddus v Union of India.
The case involved the status of an “opinion” rendered by a Foreigners Tribunal, as to the citizenship (or the lack thereof) of any individual. The issue arose because, in the State of Assam, there are two ongoing processes concerning the question of citizenship.
• The first includes proceedings before the Foreigners Tribunals, which have been established under an executive order of the Central government.
• The second is the NRC, a process overseen and driven by the Supreme Court. While nominally independent, both processes nonetheless bleed into each other, and have thus caused significant chaos and confusion for individuals who have found themselves on the wrong side of one or both.

In short, the petitioners’ case was that the two processes — that of the Foreigners Tribunal and of the NRC — should be kept entirely

The higher judiciary appeared to be the sole exception to this English-to-Hindi journey as Article 348(1) stipulates the use of English in the Supreme Court and High Courts as well as for drafting Bills, Acts and Orders.
But Article 348(2) read with Section (7) of the Official Languages Act 1963 provides for Hindi or other official languages to be used in High Courts “in addition to English”.

The Constitution of India has dealt with the provisions regarding
international treaties through Articles 51, 73 and 253.
Article 51: Promotion of international peace and security The State shall endeavour to
•promote international peace and security;
•maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
•foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of
organised peoples with one another; and encourage settlement of international
disputes by arbitration
Article 73: provides that the scope of the powers of the executive extend to:
•To the matters specified in the List 1, inclusive of entry 14, with respect to entering
into and implementing treaties.
•Such rights or obligations as are exercisable in consequence of any treaty or
convention which India has ratified.
Article 253: Legislation for giving effect to international agreements notwithstanding
anything in the foregoing provisions of this Chapter, Parliament has power to make any law
for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or
convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international
conference, association or other body.

Oath or Affirmation by the President.
Before entering upon his office, the President has to make and subscribe to an oath or
affirmation. In his oath, the President swears:
•to faithfully execute the office;
•to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law; and
•to devote himself to the service and well-being of the people of India.

The Rajya Sabha.
•The origin of the second Chamber can be traced to the Montague-Chelmsford
Report of 1918.
•The Government of India Act, 1919 provided for the creation of a ‘Council of
State’ as a second chamber of the then legislature with a restricted franchise which
actually came into existence in 1921.
•The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution provides for allocation of seats to the
States and Union Territories in Rajya Sabha.
•The allocation of seats is made on the basis of the population of each State.

According to information provided by the Ministry of Culture in the Rajya
Sabha in February 2014, the guidelines for declaring a language as ‘Classical’ are:
•High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000
years;
•A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by
generations of speakers;
•The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech
community;
•The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also
be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Currently, six languages enjoy the ‘Classical’ status: Tamil (declared in 2004), Sanskrit
(2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014).

One of the controversies about the Preamble is as to whether it is a part of
the Constitution or not.
•In the Berubari Union case (1960), the Supreme Court said that the Preamble
shows the general purposes behind the several provisions in the Constitution, and is
thus a key to the minds of the makers of the Constitution.
•Further, where the terms used in any article are ambiguous or capable of more than
one meaning, some assistance at interpretation may be taken from the objectives
enshrined in the Preamble. Despite this recognition of the significance of the
Preamble, the Supreme Court specifically opined that Preamble is not a part of the
Constitution.
•In the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Supreme Court rejected the earlier
opinion and held that Preamble is a part of the Constitution. It observed that the
Preamble is of extreme importance and the Constitution should be read and
interpreted in the light of the grand and noble vision expressed in the Preamble.
•In the LIC of India case (1995) also, the Supreme Court again held that the
Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.

Formally, the Constitution was made by the Constituent Assembly which had
been elected for undivided India. It held its first sitting on 9 December1946 and
reassembled as Constituent Assembly for divided India on 14 August 1947.
Its members were chosen by indirect election by the members of the Provincial
Legislative Assemblies that had been established under the Government of India Act,
1935.
The Constituent Assembly was composed roughly along the lines suggested by the
plan proposed by the committee of the British cabinet, known as the Cabinet Mission.
According to this plan:
•Each Province and each Princely State or group of States were allotted seats
proportional to their respective population roughly in the ratio of 1:10,00,000.
As a result the Provinces (that were under direct British rule) were to elect 292
members while the Princely States were allotted a minimum of 93 seats.
•The seats in each Province were distributed among the three main communities,
Muslims, Sikhs and general, in proportion to their respective populations.
•Members of each community in the Provincial Legislative Assembly elected their own
representatives by the method of proportional representation with single
transferable vote.
•The method of selection in the case of representatives of Princely States was to be
determined by consultation.

Article 100 of the Constitution of India stipulates that at least 10% of
total number of members of the House must be present to constitute the quorum to
constitute a meeting of either House of Parliament.
•It means that there must be at least 55 members present in the Lok Sabha and 25
members present in the Rajya Sabha, if any business is to be conducted.
•Quorum also includes the presiding officer of the particular house (Lok Sabha or
Rajya Sabha).
•If there is no quorum during a meeting of the House, it is the duty of the presiding
officer either to adjourn the House or to suspend the meeting until there is a quorum.

The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the following 22
languages:
(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani, (8)
Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit,
(15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santhali, (21) Maithili and (22)
Dogri.
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was
added in 1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were
included in 1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2004

Statement 1 is correct. In parliamentary systems, the chief executive’s term
of office is directly linked with that of the legislature, while in presidential systems the
terms are not linked.
-The executive is selected by the assembly and the executive remains in office subject to
legislative confidence.
Statement 2 is incorrect. In a presidential system, the President, who is the chief executive
as well as the symbolic head of government, is chosen by a separate election and not from
the Legislature.
-Ministers/Secretaries usually are not simultaneously members of the legislature, although
their appointment may require the advice and consent of the legislative branch.

Six languages have been conferred the status of ‘Classical Language’ in
India till now: Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam
(2013), and Odia (2014).
Criteria for conferring the status of Classical Language:
-High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years.
-A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations
of speakers.
-The literary tradition to be original and not borrowed from another speech community.
-The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a
discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Till date, Hindi has not been granted the Classical Language status.

The latest edition of the Democracy Index spells gloom for India. The world’s biggest democracy slipped 10 places in the 2019 global ranking to 51st place.

The report published by The Economist Intelligence Unit — the research and analysis division of The Economist Group, which is the sister company to The Economist newspaper — records how global democracy fared, analyzing 165 independent states and two territories.

India was graded in electoral process and pluralism (8.67), government functioning (6.79), political participation (6.67), political culture (5.63) and civil liberties (6.76).